.jpg)
The second article in BET KANU Magazine, featured in The Mesopotamian Influence edition, examines the world’s earliest known legal systems.
ܡܨܰܘ݄ܪ ܥܳܠܡܳܐ ܕܠܳܐ ܩܳܢܽܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܘܢܳܡܽܘܣ̈ܶܐ ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥̈ܶܐ، ܐܰܝܟܳܐ ܕܢܳܫܳܐ ܠܳܐ ܟܳܐܕ݄ܥ ܡ݄ܢ ܙܶܕ̈ܩܶܐ ܟܺܝܬ ܠܶܗ ܘܡ݄ܢ ܙܶܕ̈ܩܶܐ ܟܺܝܬ ܐܰܥܠܶܗ
ܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ ܙܶܕ ܡܶܢ̱ ܬܠܳܬ̥ܰܐܠܦܳܐ ܐ݄ܫܢ̈ܶܐ ܡܫܰܪܰܠّܶܗ ܗ̄ܰܢ ܢܶܣܝܳܢ̈ܶܐ ܩܰܕ̱ܡܳܝ̈ܶܐ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܛܽܘܟܳܣܳܐ ܕܰܚّܰܝ̈ܶܐ ܘܽܗ̄ܘ ܬܽܘܚܳܡܳܐ ܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܘܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܛܠܽܘܡܝܳܐ.
ܬܽܘܪܳܨܳܐ ܡܰܟܬ̥ܰܒܙܰܒܢܳܝܳܐ ܕܰܩّܳܢܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܥܰܬܺܝܩ̈ܶܐ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ ܚܫܺܝܒ̥ܳܐ ܝܳܐ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܩܰܕ̱ܡܳܝܳܐ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܥܳܠܡܳܐ.
ܘܦܰܝ݄ܫ ܚܫܺܝܒ̥ܳܐ ܗܰܘܟ̥ܰܐ ܗܳܠ ܠܺܗ̄ܝ ܫܟܰܚܬܳܐ ܕܰܩّܳܢܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܕܟܝܬܢܶܝ ܥܰܬ݄ܩ ܐܰܝܟ̥܇
ܐ. ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܽܘ (2100–2050 ܩ.ܡ)
ܒ. ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܠܺܝܒܬ݂ ܥܰܫܬܰܪ (1930–1920 ܩ.ܡ)
ܓ. ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܐܶܫܢܽܘܢܰܐ (1900 -1800 ܩ.ܡ)
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ (1750–1792 ܩ.ܡ) ܠܰܝ̱ܬ ܗ̄ܘܰܐ ܟܽܘܠܶܗ ܚܰܕ̱ܬ̥ܳܐ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܰܒܢܰܘܳܐ ܐܶܠܳܐ:
ܡ݄ܕ ܠܶܗ ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܡܰܢ̱ ܩّܳܢܽܘ̈ܢܶܐ ܕܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ
ܛܪܶܐ ܠܶܗ ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܐܝܟ̥ ܕܟܝܬܢܶܝ
ܡܫܰܚܠܰܦ ܠܶܗ ܘܡܰܘܙܰܕ ܠܶܗ ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܕܐܙّ݄ܢ ܗ̄ܘܰܘ ܥܰܡ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܙܰܒܢܰܝܕܶܗ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܽܘ ܥܰܬ݄ܩ ܢܳܡܽܘܣܳܐ ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ܳܐ ܘܺܝܕ݂ܺܝܥܳܐ:
ܟܳܕܳܥ݄ܪ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܕܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܚܰܕ̱ ܘܥܶܣܪܺܝܢ̱ ܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܡܰܘܠܳܕܳܐ (2100- 2050 ܩ.ܡ)
ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ ܘܡܛܰܟ݄ܣ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܡܰܠܟܳܐ ܫܽܘܡܪܳܝܳܐ ܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܽܘ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܡܫܰܬܐܣܳܢܳܐ ܕܗ̄ܺܝ ܫܰܪܒܬ̥ܳܐ ܕܐܽܘܪ ܕܰܬܠ݄ܬ̥
ܐ̱ܡܺܝܪ ܕܟܺܝܬ ܐܶܒܶܗ 57 ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܩܳܢܽܘ̈ܢܳܝܶܐ ܘܡܰܛܺܝ ܠܰܢ 31 ܡܶܢّܶܗ.
ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ ܒܺܗ̄ܝ ܟܬ̥ܰܒ̥ܬܳܐ ܕܰܨܶܨ̈ܶܐ (ܕܰܒ݄ܣܡܳܪ̈ܶܐ) ܘܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܠܶܫܳܢܳܐ ܫܽܘܡܪܳܝܳܐ.
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܠܽܘܚܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܛܺܝܢܳܐ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܰܕ̱ܡܳܝܳܐ ܕܟܺܝܬ ܐܶܒܶܗ ܦܰܠܩܳܐ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܢܳܡܽܘܣܰܝܕܶܗ ܚܙܶܐ ܒܺܗ̄ܝ ܫܰܢ̱ܬܳܐ ܕ1952
ܗ̄ܰܢ ܢܺܝܫ̈ܶܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܐܟ̥ ܕܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ܺܝ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܥܽܘܬܳܕܰܝܕܶܗ ܗ݄ܢّܶܝ܇
ܕ݄ܡܥܰܫܢܺܝ ܗ̄ܺܝ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܘܺܗ̄ܝ ܚܺܐܪܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ
ܕ݄ܡܒܰܛܠܺܝ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܚܪܳܒ̥ܳܐ
ܕ݄ܡܒܰܛܠܺܝ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܣܢܳܝܳܐ ܘܽܗ̄ܘ ܛܠܽܘܡܝܳܐ
ܗ̄ܰܢ ܐܶܣ̈ܶܐ ܐܽܘܠܨܳܝ̈ܶܐ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܟܺܝܬ ܐܶܒܶܗ ܐܶܣ̈ܶܐ ܪ̈ܺܝܫܳܝܶܐ ܕܟܳܕܳܡ݄ܢ ܠܰܗ̄ܢܺܝ ܕܺܝܕ̥ܺܝܥܺܝ ܒ݄ܐܫܡܶܗ ܕܰܙّܶܕܩ̈ܶܐ ܢܳܫܳܝ̈ܶܐ.
ܚܶܪܡܳܐ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܬܶܟܝܒ̥ܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܓܘܫܡܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܒܰܪܢܳܫܳܐ
ܫܰܘܝܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܒܰܝܢ ܕܰܗ̄ܢ ܢܳܫ̈ܶܐ
ܢܛܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܙّܶܕܩ̈ܶܐ ܕܰܡܚܺܝ̈ܠܶܐ
ܗ̄ܰܬّܽܘܖ̈ܳܨܶܐ ܕܡܰܚܬܺܝ ܠܶܗ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܰܢܳܐ
ܨܶܒܘ̈ܳܬ̥ܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܽܘܘܳܓ̥ܳܐ ܘܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܛܘܠܳܩܳܐ
ܙܶܕ̈ܩܶܐ ܕܰܝܰܬܽܘܡ̈ܶܐ
ܡܚܰܫܒ̥ܳܢܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܥܰܠ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܰܛܠܳܐ ܘܗ̄ܽܘ ܓܢܳܒ̥ܳܐ ܘܗ̄ܺܝ ܢܟ̥ܺܝܠܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܘܗ̄ܽܘ ܒܙܳܙܳܐ
ܟܠܰܝܬܳܐ ܒܦܳܬܶܗ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܺܐܦܳܐ ܕܰܟܰܝ̈ܠܶܐ
ܟ݄ܬ ܗ̄ܘܰܝ ܠܶܗ ܕܰܘܪܳܐ ܐܽܘܠܨܳܝܳܐ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܫܽܘܘܫܳܛܳܐ ܘܫܽܘܬܳܐܣܳܐ ܕܦܽܘܠܺܝܛܺܝܩܺܝ ܐܶܩܳܢܽܘܡܝܳܐ ܚܦܺܝܛܳܐ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܕܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܫّܽܘܡܪ̈ܳܝܶܐ
ܡܰܗ̄ܠܰܟ̥ ܠܶܗ ܥܰܠ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܐܶܣܳܐ ܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܡܚܰܠܦܽܘܬܐ ܡܶܢ̱ ܚܠܳܦ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܚܫܳܒ̥ܳܐ ܕܡܰܗ̄ܠܰܟ̥ ܠܶܗ ܐܰܥܠܶܗ ܚܰܡܘܪܰܒܺܝ
ܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܽܘ ܝܕ̥ܺܝܥ ܐܟ̥ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܡܛܰܟܣܳܢܳܐ ܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܒܫܽܘܡܰܪ ܘܐܰܟܰܕ
ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܠܺܝܒܬ ܥܰܫܬܰܪ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܰܬܪܶܝ ܒܰܝܢ ܕܰܩّܳܢܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܥܰܬܝ̈ܩܶܐ
ܣܺܝܡ ܡܶܢ̱ ܡܰܠܟܳܐ ܠܺܝܒܬ ܥܰܫܬܰܪ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܡܰܠܟܳܐ ܕܰܚܰܡܫܳܐ ܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܫܰܪܒܬ̥ܳܐ ܕܺܐܝܣܺܝܢ
ܟܳܕܳܥ݄ܪ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܕܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܬܪܰܐܠܦܳܐ ܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܡܰܘܠܳܕܳܐ (1930–1920ܩ.ܡ)
ܡܬܰܚܬ ܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ ܒܙ݄ܕ ܡܶܢ̱ ܕܳܪܳܐ ܘܦܰܠܓܶܗ
ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܠܶܫܳܢܳܐ ܫܽܘܡܪܳܝܳܐ ܘ݄ܚܙܶܐ ܥܰܠ ܫܰܒ̥ܥܳܐ ܦܰܠܩ̈ܶܐ
ܟܺܝܬ ܐܶܒܶܗ ܥܽܘܬܳܕܳܐ ܕܟܳܕܳܡܶܐ ܠܰܗ̄ܘܳܐ ܕܽܐܘܪܢܰܡܽܘ، ܫܰܒ̥ܥܳܐ ܘܬܠܶܬ̥ܺܝ ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܝ̈ܶܐ ܘܚܽܘܬ̥ܳܡܳܐ
ܗ̄ܰܢ ܢܽܘܩܙ̈ܶܐ ܐܽܘܠܨܳܝ̈ܶܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ
ܗ̄ܰܙّܶܕܩ̈ܶܐ ܢܳܫܳܝ̈ܶܐ ܘܺܗ̄ܝ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܠܰܡܶܣܟܺܢ̈ܶܐ
ܢܛܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܥّܰܒܕ̈ܶܐ ܘܕܠܳܐ ܡܺܝܬܰܟܺܝܒ̥ܝ
ܢܛܳܪܳܐ ܕܰܙܶܕܩ̈ܶܐ ܕܰܛܠܳܝ̈ܶܐ
ܕܠܳܐ ܡܺܝܬܰܟܠܶܐ ܢܳܫܳܐ ܐܶܢ ܕܠܳܐ ܡܝܫܰܪܰܪ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܚܰܘܒܰܝܕܶܗ، ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܰܢܳܐ ܟܳܚܳܫܰܒ̥ ܠܶܗ ܒܪܺܝܪܳܐ (ܒܰܪܺܝܳܐ) ܗܳܠ ܕܡܺܝܫܰܪܰܪ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܚܰܘܒܰܝܕܶܗ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܚܽܘܬ̥ܳܡܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܟܳܐܡ݄ܪ: ܠܝܒܬ ܥܰܫܬܰܪ ܐܰܒܪܶܗ ܕܰܐܠܳܗܳܐ ܐܶܢܠܺܝܠ ܣܢܶܐ ܠܺܝ ܠܺܗ̄ܝ ܣܰܢܝܽܘܬܐ ܘܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܥܢܽܘܦܝܳܐ، ܦܠ݄ܚ ܠܺܝ ܕܡܰܪܟܰܒ̥ ܐ̱ܢܳܐ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܘ̣̣ܫܪܳܪܳܐ ܘܣ݄ܡ ܠܺܝ ܛܳܒ̥ܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܠܰܐܦ ܗ̄ܰܫܽܘܡܪ̈ܳܝܶܐ ܘܰܐܟܰܕ̈ܳܝܶܐ
ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܐܶܫܢܘܢܰܐ
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܰܬܠܳܬ̥ܳܐ ܒܰܝܢ ܕܰܩّܳܢܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܥܰܬܝ̈ܩܶܐ
ܟܳܕܳܥܪ ܠܺܗ̄ܝ ܡܰܠܟܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܕܐܶܫܢܘܢܰܐ ܚܕܳܐ ܡܰܢ̱ ܡّܰܠܟܘ̈ܳܬ̥ܳܐ ܐܽܘܠܨܳܝ̈ܶܐ ܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܫܽܘܪܳܝܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܕܳܪܳܐ ܒܳܒܠܳܝܳܐ
ܟܬ̥ܺܝܒ̥ ܒܺܗ̄ܝ ܟܬ̥ܰܒ̥ܬܳܐ ܕܰܨّܶܨ̈ܶܐ (ܕܰܒܶܣܡܳܪ̈ܶܐ) ܘܒܽܗ̄ܘ ܠܶܫܳܢܳܐ ܐܰܟܰܕܳܝܳܐ
ܟܺܝܬ ܐܶܒܶܗ ܥܽܘܬܳܕܳܐ ܘܐ݄ܫܬܺܝ ܡܠܽܘ̈ܐܶܐ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܝ̈ܶܐ
ܟܳܕܳܥ݄ܪ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܰܒܢܳܐ ܒܰܝܢ (1900-1800 ܩ.ܡ) ܘܡܬܰܚ̣̣ܬ ܡܶܩ݄ܕ̱ܡ ܡܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ ܒܙ݄ܕ ܡܶܢ̱ ܕܳܪܳܐ.
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܰܢܳܐ ܦܠܺܝܓ̥ ܠܦܰܠܩ̈ܶܐ ܒܓܽܘܕ̈ܶܐ ܘܟܽܘܠ ܚܰܕ ܠܨܒܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܕܺܝܠܳܢܳܝܬܳܐ ܐܰܝܟ̥܇
ܐܰܝܟܰܢܳܝܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܩܢܽܘܡܳܝܬܳܐ
ܙܶܕܩ̈ܶܐ ܕܰܝܰܩܪ̈ܳܬ̥ܳܐ ܘܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܓܰܒ̥ܪܳܐ ܘܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܐܰܢ̱ܬ̥ܬܳܐ
ܗ̄ܺܝ ܢܰܩܠܰܐ ܩܰܕ̱ܡܰܝܬܳܐ ܕܦܠܺܝܓ̥ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܟܶܢܫܳܐ ܠܣܶܕܪ̈ܶܐ ܦܪܺܝܫ̈ܶܐ
ܚܙܶܐ ܠܶܗ ܫܖ̈ܳܝܶܐ ܠܰܩّܰܛܪ̈ܶܐ ܐܶܩܳܢܽܘܡܝܳܝ̈ܶܐ
ܗ̄ܰܛܺܝܡ̈ܶܐ ܕܰܣّܶܦܳܩ̈ܶܐ ܐܽܘܠܨܳܝ̈ܶܐ
ܡܕܰܒܪܳܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܒ̥ܳܢܳܐ ܘܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܙܶܒܳܢܳܐ ܘܺܗ̄ܝ ܡܳܪܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ
ܫܪܳܝܳܐ ܠܽܗ̄ܘ ܩܰܛܪܳܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܓܢܳܒ̥ܳܐ
ܐܶܣܳܐ ܕܺܗ̄ܝ ܡܚܰܠܦܽܘܬܐ ܥܰܠ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܚܪܳܒ̥ܳܐ
ܗܰܘܺܝ ܐܶܣܳܪܳܐ ܒܰܝܢ ܕܰܗ̄ܢ ܢܳܡܽܘܣ̈ܶܐ ܫܽܘܡܪ̈ܳܝܶܐ (ܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܘ ܘܠܺܝܒܬ ܥܫܬܰܪ) ܘܰܗ̄ܢ ܢܳܡܽܘ̈ܣܶܐ ܒܳܒܠܳܝ̈ܶܐ (ܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ)
ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܕܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ
ܡ݄ܕ ܠܶܗ ܪ̈ܶܢܝܶܐ ܡܰܢ̱ ܩّܳܢܽܘ̈ܢܶܐ ܕܡܶܩ̣̣ܕ̱ܡ ܘܡܶܢܝܳܢܳܐ ܡܰܢ̱ ܦܳܣܽܘ̈ܩܰܬܶܗ ܐܶܠܳܐ ܟܳܡ݄ܚܫܽܒ̥ ܗ̄ܽܘ ܩܳܢܽܘܢܳܐ ܟܰܡܺܝܠܳܐ ܒܰܝܢ ܕܰܩّܳܢܘܢ̈ܶܐ ܥܰܬܺܝ̈ܩܶܐ ܕܡܶܩ̣̣ܕ̱ܡ ܡܶܢܶܗ ܡܰܗ̄ܘܟ̥ܰܐ ܟܡ݄ܚܙܶܐ ܐ̱ܝܟ ܕܕܰܦܳܐ ܡܰܒܗܪܳܢܳܐ ܒܰܕّܰܦ̈ܶܐ ܕܽܗ̄ܘ ܡܰܟܬ̥ܰܒܙܰܒܢܳܐ
ܡܶܢ̱ ܐܽܘܪܢܰܡܘ ܠܚܰܡܽܘܪܰܒܺܝ ܗ̄ܰܩܳܢܽܘ̈ܢܶܐ ܠܰܬ ܗ̄ܘܰܝ ܢܶܐ ܦܳܣܽܘ̈ܩܶܐ ܒܰܠܚܽܘܕ ܐܶܠܳܐ ܦܣܰܥܬܳܐ ܩܰܕ̱ܡܰܝܬܳܐ ܠܥܳܠܡܳܐ ܟܳܡܰܘܕ̣̣ܥ ܗ̄ܺܝ ܟܺܐܢܽܘܬ̥ܳܐ
ܡܨܲܠܡܸܢ ܠܥܵܠܡܵܐ ܕܠܵܐ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܟܬܝܼܒܼܹ̈ܐ، ܐܲܝܟܵܐ ܕܐܵܦ ܚܲܕ݇ ܠܵܐ ܝܵܕܹܥ ܡܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܕܝܼܹܗ ܘܡܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܥܲܠܹܗ.
ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܙܵܘܕܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܬܠܵܬܵܐ ܐܲܠܦܹ̈ܐ ܫܸܢܹ̈ܐ، ܡܫܘܼܪܹܐ ܠܹܗ ܗܵܘ ܢܸܣܝܵܢܵܐ ܩܲܕ݇ܡܵܝܵܐ ܠܡܲܪܝܘܿܙܹܐ ܚܲܝܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܲܡܬܲܚܲܡܬܵܐ ܕܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܲܛܠܘܼܡܝܵܐ.
ܣܸܕܪܵܐ ܕܐܵܢܝ݇ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܒܘܼܫ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܹ̈ܐ ܒܥܵܠܡܵܐ:
ܦܪܝܼܣܬܵܐ ܝܠܵܗ̇ ܓܵܘ ܐ݇ܢܵܫܹ̈ܐ ܕܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ ܝܼܠܹܗ ܗܵܘ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܩܲܕ݇ܡܵܝܵܐ ܒܥܵܠܡܵܐ.
ܘܐܵܗܵܐ ܡܬܲܚܡܲܢܬܵܐ ܦܪܸܣܠܵܗ̇ ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܡܲܫ݇ܟ̰ܲܚܬܵܐ ܕܐܵܢܝ݇ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܒܘܼܫ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܹ̈ܐ ܐܲܝܟܼ:
1. ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ (2100-2050 ܩ.ܡ)
2. ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܠܸܒܸܬ ܥܲܫܬܵܪ (1930-1920 ܩ.ܡ)
3. ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܡܲܠܟܘܼܬܵܐ ܕܐܸܫܢܘܼܢܵܐ (1900-1800 ܩ.ܡ)
ܢܵܡܘܿܣܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ (1792-1750 ܩ.ܡ) ܕܠܵܐ ܝܗ݇ܘܵܐ ܫܘܼܪܵܝܵܐ، ܐܝܼܢܵܐ ܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܐ:
· ܫܩܝܼܠܵܐ ܡܲܥܒܕܵܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܕܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܒܘܼܫ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܹ̈ܐ
· ܫܒܼܸܩܠܹܗ ܠܚܲܕ݇ܟܡܵܐ ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܹ̈ܐ ܐܲܝܟܼ ܕܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܘ
· ܡܫܘܼܚܠܸܦܠܹܗ ܘܡܘܼܙܝܸܕܠܹܗ ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܐ݇ܚܹܖ̈݇ܢܹܐ ܕܠܵܚܹܡ ܥܲܡ ܙܲܒܼܢܹܗ
ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ (ܗܵܘ ܢܵܡܘܿܣܵܐ ܟܬܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܒܘܼܫ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܵܐ):
· ܕܥܵܪܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܠܕܵܪܵܐ ܕ 21 ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܡܵܘܠܵܕܵܐ (2100-2050 ܩ.ܡ)
· ܩܲܡ ܡܲܬܸܒܼܠܹܗ ܡܲܠܟܵܐ ܫܘܿܡܝܼܪܵܝܵܐ ܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ ܗܵܘ ܕܝܼܠܹܗ ܡܫܲܬܐܸܣܵܢܵܐ ܕܝܘܼܒܵܠܵܐ ܬܠܝܼܬܵܝܵܐ ܕܐܘܿܪ
· ܐ݇ܡܝܼܪܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܕܚܵܒܼܹܫ 57 ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ، ܘܡܸܛܝܹ̈ܐ ܝܠܲܝܗܝ ܐܸܠܲܢ 31
· ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܟܬܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܒܣܸܪܛܵܐ ܨܸܨܵܝܵܐ ܘܲܒܠܸܫܵܢܵܐ ܫܘܿܡܝܼܪܵܝܵܐ
· ܗܵܘ ܠܘܼܚܵܐ ܛܝܼܢܵܝܵܐ ܩܲܕ݇ܡܵܝܵܐ ܕܚܵܒܼܹܫ ܗ݇ܘܵܐ ܚܲܕ݇ ܣܲܗܡܵܐ ܡܸܢܹܗ ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܘܼܫ݇ܟ̰ܚܵܐ ܒܫܲܢ݇ܬܵܐ ܕ 1952
ܢܝܼܫܹ̈ܐ ܕܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܐܲܝܟܼ ܕܦܝܼܫܠܲܝܗܝ ܡܘܼܕܟܼܸܖܹ̈ܐ ܓܵܘ ܥܘܼܬܵܕܹܗ:
· ܡܲܩܘܲܝܬܵܐ ܕܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܚܹܐܪܘܼܬܵܐ
· ܡܒܲܛܘܿܠܹܐ ܚܒܼܵܠܵܐ
· ܡܒܲܛܘܿܠܹܐ ܣܢܵܝܬܵܐ ܘܲܛܠܘܼܡܝܵܐ
ܐܵܢܝ݇ ܖܹ̈ܫܘܵܬܵܐ ܐܸܣܵܝܹ̈ܐ:
ܐܵܗܵܐ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܚܵܒܼܹܫ ܪܵܒܵܐ ܖܹ̈ܫܘܵܬܵܐ ܕܕܵܡܝܼ ܥܲܠ ܡܵܐ ܕܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܩܸܪܝܵܐ ܐ݇ܚܲܪܬܵܐ ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܒܲܪܢܵܫܵܐ
· ܡܲܚܪܘܿܡܹܐ ܩܝܵܬܬܵܐ ܒܦܲܓܼܪܵܐ ܕܒܲܪܢܵܫܵܐ
· ܫܲܘܝܘܼܬܵܐ ܒܲܝܢ ܟܠ
· ܡܚܲܡܘܿܝܹܐ ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܲܡܚܝܼܠܹ̈ܐ
ܬܘܼܖ̈ܵܨܹܐ ܕܦܝܼܫܠܲܝܗܝ ܡܘܼܕܟܼܸܖܹ̈ܐ:
· ܨܸܒܼ̈ܘܵܬܵܐ ܕܙܘܼܘܵܓܼܵܐ ܘܛܘܼܠܵܩܵܐ
· ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܝܲܬܘܼܡܹ̈ܐ
· ܬܲܢܒܹ̈ܐ ܕܥܲܠ ܩܛܵܠܵܐ ܘܲܓܢܵܒܼܵܐ ܘܲܥܬܵܬܵܐ ܘܲܒܬܵܠܵܐ
· ܟܠܵܝܵܐ ܒܦܵܬܵܐ ܕܠܸܥܒܹ̈ܐ ܘܲܡܛܲܐܘܿܠܹܐ ܒܝܘܼܩܖܹ̈ܐ ܘܟܲܝܠܹ̈ܐ
· ܐܝܼܬ ܗ݇ܘܵܐ ܠܹܗ ܓܲܪܵܐ ܪܹܫܵܝܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܡܛܵܘܪܘܿܢܹܐ ܘܡܲܫܪܘܿܝܹܐ ܣܝܵܣܵܐ ܐܸܩܢܘܿܡܝܵܝܵܐ ܡܲܢܬܝܼܵܢܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܐܲܬܪܵܐ ܕܫܘܿܡܲܪ
· ܣܢܸܕܠܹܗ ܥܲܠ ܪܹܫܘܼܬܵܐ ܕܦܘܼܪܥܵܢܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܫܵܘܦܵܐ ܕܬܲܢܒܵܐ ܕܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܘܼܦܠܸܚܵܐ ܒܝܲܕ ܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ
ܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܟܘܼܢܝܵܐ ܒ((ܡܲܪܝܸܙܵܢܵܐ ܕܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܫܘܿܡܲܪ ܘܐܲܟܲܕ))
ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܠܸܒܸܬ ܥܲܫܬܵܪ:
· ܝܼܠܹܗ ܗܵܘ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܲܬܪܹܝܢ ܡ̣ܢ ܓܹܒ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܘܼܬܵܐ
· ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܘܼܬܒܼܵܐ ܒܝܲܕ ܡܲܠܟܵܐ ܠܸܒܸܬ ܥܲܫܬܵܪ، ܗܵܘ ܡܲܠܟܵܐ ܚܡܝܼܫܵܝܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܝܘܼܒܵܠܵܐ ܡܲܠܟܵܝܵܐ ܕܐܝܼܣܸܢ
· ܕܥܵܪܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܠܐܲܠܦܵܐ ܬܪܲܝܵܢܵܐ ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܡܵܘܠܵܕܵܐ (1930-1920 ܩ. ܡ)
· ܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܐ ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ ܒܙܵܘܕܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܚܲܕ݇ ܕܵܪܵܐ ܘܦܸܠܓܵܐ
· ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܟܬܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܒܠܸܫܵܢܵܐ ܫܘܿܡܝܼܪܵܝܵܐ ܘܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܘܼܫ݇ܟ̰ܚܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܫܲܒܼܥܵܐ ܠܘܼܚܹ̈ܐ
· ܚܵܒܼܹܫ ܥܘܼܬܵܕܵܐ ܕܕܵܡܹܐ ܠܥܘܼܬܵܕܵܐ ܕܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ ܘ 37 ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܘܚܘܼܬܵܡܵܐ
ܐܵܢܝ݇ ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܒܘܼܫ ܐܵܢܲܢܩܵܝܹ̈ܐ:
· ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܒܲܪܢܵܫܵܐ ܘܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܩܵܐ ܦܲܩܝܼܖܹ̈ܐ
· ܡܚܲܡܲܝܬܵܐ ܕܥܲܒܼܕܹ̈ܐ ܘܡܲܟܠܲܝܬܵܐ ܕܲܡܢܲܟܼܲܝܬܲܝܗܝ
· ܢܛܵܪܵܐ ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܫܲܒܼܪܘܼܬܵܐ
· ܠܵܐ ܩܒܵܠܬܵܐ ܒܲܕܒܼܵܩܬܵܐ ܕܐܲܝܢܝܼ ܦܲܪܨܘܿܦܵܐ ܕܗܵܘܹܐ ܕܠܵܐ ܡܲܙܒܲܛܬܵܐ ܕܣܘܼܪܚܵܢܹܗ، ܠܗܵܕܟܼܵܐ ܐܵܗܵܐ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܟܹܐ ܚܵܫܹܒܼ ܠܲܡܪܘܼܡܝܵܐ ܙܲܟܵܝܵܐ ܗܲܠ ܕܦܵܝܫܵܐ ܡܘܼܙܒܸܛܬܵܐ ܕܝܵܢܬܵܐ ܕܥܲܠܹܗ
· ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܡܘܼܕܟܼܸܪܵܐ ܓܵܘ ܚܘܼܬܵܡܹܗ: ܠܸܒܸܬ ܥܲܫܬܵܪ ܒܪܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ ܐܲܢܠܝܼܠ ܡܒܘܼܛܸܠܠܝܼ ܠܲܣܢܵܝܬܵܐ ܘܲܥܢܵܦܵܐ ܘܲܦܠܸܚܠܝܼ ܥܲܠ ܡܲܓܠܲܝܬܵܐ ܕܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܙܲܕܝܼܩܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܡܲܝܬܘܿܝܹܐ ܛܵܒܼܬܵܐ ܩܵܐ ܫܘܿܡܝܼܖ̈ܵܝܹܐ ܘܐܲܟܲܕܵܝܹ̈ܐ
ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܡܲܠܟܘܼܬܵܐ ܕܐܸܫܢܘܼܢܵܐ:
· ܝܼܠܹܗ ܗܵܘ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܬܠܝܼܬܵܝܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܓܹܒ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܘܼܬܵܐ
· ܝܼܠܹܗ ܕܡܲܠܟܘܼܬܵܐ ܕܐܸܫܢܘܼܢܵܐ ܗܵܝ ܕܝܼܠܵܗ̇ ܚܕܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܕܵܘܸܠ̈ܝܵܬܵܐ ܒܵܒܼܹܝܠܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܐܵܢܲܢܩܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܓܵܘ ܡܫܲܪܲܝܬܵܐ ܕܙܲܒܼܢܵܐ ܒܵܒܼܹܝܠܵܝܵܐ
· ܦܝܼܫܠܹܗ ܟܬܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܒܣܸܪܛܵܐ ܨܸܨܵܝܵܐ ܘܲܒܠܸܫܵܢܵܐ ܐܲܟܲܕܵܝܵܐ
· ܚܵܒܼܹܫ ܥܘܼܬܵܕܵܐ ܘ 60 ܡܠܘܿܐܹ̈ܐ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܝܹ̈ܐ
· ܕܵܥܹܪ ܠܡܸܬܚܵܐ ܕܒܲܝܢ (1900-1800 ܩ.ܡ) ܘܝܼܠܹܗ ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ ܒܙܵܘܕܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܚܲܕ݇ ܕܵܪܵܐ
ܦܠܝܼܓܼܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܠܲܟܢܘܼܫ̈ܝܵܬܵܐ ܕܟܠ ܚܕܵܐ ܡܸܢܲܝܗܝ ܟܹܐ ܡܗܲܡܙܸܡܵܐ ܒܘܼܕ ܚܕܵܐ ܨܒܼܘܼܬܵܐ:
· ܐܲܝܟܲܢ̈ܘܵܬܵܐ ܦܲܖ̈ܨܘܿܦܵܝܹܐ
· ܙܸܕܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܒܲܝܬܘܼܬܵܐ ܘܒܲܪ ܙܵܘܓܵܐ ܘܒܲܪ݇ܬ ܙܵܘܓܵܐ
· ܗܵܝ ܡܲܕܟܼܲܪܬܵܐ ܩܲܕ݇ܡܵܝܬܵܐ ܒܘܼܕ ܦܠܵܓܼܬܵܐ ܕܲܟܢܘܼܫܝܵܐ ܠܫܵܘܝ̈ܘܵܬܵܐ
· ܡܗܘܼܡܙܸܡܠܹܗ ܒܘܼܕ ܨܸܒܼܘܵܬ̈ܵܐ ܐܸܩܢܘܿܡܝܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܐܲܝܟܼ ܡܬܲܚܲܡܬܵܐ ܕܛܝܼܡܹ̈ܐ ܕܬܹܐܓܼܘܼܖ̈ܝܵܬܵܐ ܐܸܣܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܘܡܲܪܝܲܙܬܵܐ ܕܲܙܒܼܵܢܵܐ ܘܲܡܙܲܒܘܿܢܹܐ ܘܡܘܼܠܟܵܢܵܐ
· ܟܠܵܝܵܐ ܒܦܵـܬܵܐ ܕܲܓܢܵܒܼܵܐ
· ܡܣܲܬܘܿܬܹܐ ܪܹܫܘܼܬܵܐ ܕܦܘܼܪܥܵܢܵܐ ܡ̣ܢ ܢܸܟܼܝܵܢܵܐ
· ܝܼܠܹܗ ܚܲܠܲܩܬܵܐ ܐܵܣܪܵܢܬܵܐ ܒܲܝܢ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܫܘܿܡܝܼܖ̈ܵܝܹܐ (ܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ ܘܠܸܒܸܬ ܥܲܫܬܵܪ) ܘܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ
ܩܵܢܘܿܢܵܐ ܕܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ:
ܚܫܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܗܵܘ ܒܘܼܫ ܓܡܝܼܪܵܐ ܒܲܝܢ ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܥܲܬܝܼܩܹ̈ܐ ܕܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܘ ܩܵܕ݇ܡ ܡܸܢܹܗ، ܐܝܼܢܵܐ ܗܘܝܼܬܵܐ ܝܠܵܗ̇ ܥܲܠܹܗ ܡܲܥܒܕܵܢܘܼܬܵܐ ܡܸܢܲܝܗ، ܘܐܵܦ ܚܫܝܼܒܼܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܐܲܝܟܼ ܚܕܵܐ ܦܵܬܵܐ ܒܲܗܪܵܢܬܵܐ ܒܲܝܢ ܦܵܬ̈ܘܵܬܵܐ ܕܬܲܫܥܝܼܬܵܐ ܕܒܲܪܢܵܫܘܼܬܵܐ.
ܡ̣ܢ ܐܘܿܪܢܲܡܘܿ ܠܚܲܡܘܼܪܵܒܝܼ، ܩܵܢܘܿܢܹ̈ܐ ܠܵܐ ܝܗ݇ܘܵܘ ܐܲܚܟ̰ܝܼ ܨܚܵܚܹ̈ܐ، ܐܝܼܢܵܐ ܝܼܗ݇ܘܵܘ ܐܵܢܝ݇ ܦܵܣܘܿܥ̈ܝܵܬܵܐ ܩܲܕ݇ܡܵܝܹ̈ܐ ܨܘܿܒ ܥܵܠܡܵܐ ܕܲܩܪܵܝܵܐ ܝܠܹܗ ܟܹܐܢܘܼܬܵܐ.
Imagine a world without written laws, where no one knows what they are entitled to or what they are responsible for.
More than three thousand years ago, the first attempts began to organize society and define what was just and what was unjust.
Historical Correction Regarding the Earliest Laws
It is commonly believed that the Code of Hammurabi was the first law in the world.
This belief prevailed before the discovery of older laws, such as:
1. The Code of Ur-Nammu (2100–2050 BCE)
2. The Code of Lipit-Ishtar (1930–1920 BCE)
3. The Laws of the Kingdom of Eshnunna (1900–1800 BCE)
The Code of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BCE)
The Code of Hammurabi was not created entirely anew in its own era. Rather, it:
• Drew upon provisions from earlier laws.
• Retained some of those provisions.
• Modified and added others to suit the circumstances of its time.
The Code of Ur-Nammu (The Oldest Written Code of Law)
• It dates back to the 21st century BCE (2100–2050 BCE).
• It was established by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu, founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur.
• It is said to have contained 57 laws, of which 31 provisions have survived.
• It was written in cuneiform script and in the Sumerian language.
• In 1952, the first clay tablet containing part of the text was discovered.
The Objectives of the Law as Stated in Its Introduction
• Strengthening justice and freedom.
• Eliminating corruption.
• Removing hatred and injustice.
Key Principles
The code contains many principles that resemble what later came to be known as human rights, including:
• Prohibiting violations against the human body.
• Equality among all people.
• Protecting the rights of the vulnerable.
Reforms Addressed by the Code
• Marriage and divorce.
• The rights of orphans.
• Penalties for murder, theft, treason, and rape.
• Combating fraud and manipulation of weights and measures.
• Playing a major role in the development and establishment of a successful economic policy in the Sumerian state.
• Adopting the principle of compensation rather than the principle of retaliation, which was later adopted by Hammurabi.
Ur-Nammu was given the title “Organizer of Justice in Sumer and Akkad.”
The Code of Lipit-Ishtar
• It is considered the second-oldest known law code.
• It was issued by King Lipit-Ishtar, the fifth king of the Dynasty of Isin.
• It dates to the second millennium BCE (1930–1920 BCE).
• It predates the Code of Hammurabi by more than a century and a half.
• It was written in the Sumerian language and was discovered on seven fragments.
• It consists of an introduction similar to that of the Code of Ur-Nammu, 37 legal provisions, and a conclusion.
What It Regulated
• People's rights and justice for the poor.
• The protection of slaves and the prevention of their mistreatment.
• The protection of children's rights.
• Preventing the arrest of any person unless the crime had been established. In this respect, the law considered the accused innocent until proven guilty.
The conclusion of the law states: “Lipit-Ishtar, son of the god Enlil, abolished hatred and violence, promoted justice and truth, and brought prosperity to the Sumerians and Akkadians.”
The Laws of the Kingdom of Eshnunna
• They are considered the third-oldest known laws.
• They are attributed to the Kingdom of Eshnunna, one of the important city-states at the beginning of the Babylonian period.
• They were written in cuneiform script and in the Akkadian language.
• They consist of an introduction and 60 legal provisions.
• They date to approximately 1900–1800 BCE, predating the Code of Hammurabi by more than a century.
The laws were divided into groups, each addressing a particular issue, including:
• Personal status.
• The rights of the family, husband, and wife.
• One of the earliest references to the division of society into social classes.
• Economic matters, including setting prices for essential goods.
• Regulating buying, selling, and property ownership.
• Addressing the crime of theft.
• Establishing the principle of compensation for damages.
• Serving as a link between Sumerian legislation (Ur-Nammu and Lipit-Ishtar) and Babylonian legislation (Hammurabi).
The Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi drew upon earlier laws and was inspired by some of their provisions. However, it is considered the most comprehensive of the ancient law codes that preceded it. For this reason, it is regarded as a shining page in the history of civilization.
From Ur-Nammu to Hammurabi, laws were not merely written texts; they were the first steps toward a world seeking justice.
Western
Eastern
English